Global Citizenship Education Practices and Teacher Education: A Review of Literature

Global Citizenship Education (GCE) is considered as the core purpose of education at all levels in this contemporary world by the global educational scholars. It is the education which focuses to generate empathetic world citizens with multiple coping skills, conducive to function instantly with the challenges and opportunities they encounter in the current world. This scenario demands innovations in teacher education to make the teachers competent in delivering such education to their students. This study intends to identify the relationship between global citizenship education and teacher education based on the literature review.


INTRODUCTION
Teachers still remain as the core determiners of any kind of education. As a result, success or failure of any kind of educational reforms largely depends on how it is delivered by the teachers in any educational contexts, particularly at the school context. In essence, amongst all other factors, teachers have the greatest impact on students' learning. In fact, in recent years, the

Mini-review Article
need to develop their professionalism has been intensified as a result of the growing advancements in the areas of technology and communication as well as new understandings and developments in education, teaching methods, psychology of learning, evaluating and testing [1] (p.1). Moreover, with intensified opportunities of learners to learn away from the conventional classroom settings, with the advancement of technology, the teachers encounter more and more challenges. Therefore, it is crucial teacher professional development to align with dramatic changes in economical, ecological social, and attitudinal changes in the current world. Consequently, Global Citizenship Education (GCE) is multifaceted educational intervention to cope up with these increasing challenges of globalization [2]. If teachers are the decisive elements of implementing GCE work, they should gain the mastery of knowledge, skills and attitude through effective, continuous and sophisticated professional development trainings to deliver them to their children [3]. Accordingly, GCE requires additional preparation from teachers [4].
This mandatory requirement of teachers with their keen desire to demonstrate cultural harmony and acceptance of differences in the current global society with its advancement of technology, inter connectivity, demographic diversity and migration are contrasted with their lack of global awareness of social and cultural understandings of GCE. Their limited and uncertain conceptual understanding of diverse people in the globe has hindered proper implementation of GCE work at school [5]. Owing to multiple reasons, implementation of GCE work, enabling their students to possess 21 st century skills has been a big challenge to the teachers in the contemporary global society. Delivering content of curriculum using effective pedagogies, curriculum planning, issues in teaching and exploration of contemporary issues hindered by lack of theoretical and empirical knowledge, are the results of poor support they receive both from pre and in-service teacher trainings [6].
In contrast, the ever increasing changes in the present day society with its socio, cultural, ecological and resultant attitudinal changes have necessitated improved and innovative preparation programmes for teachers to cope up with these challenges in global context. As such, teacher preparation programmes all over the world try their best to upgrade and modernize their training programmes as a compulsive requirement of delivering GCE into their children [6]. In light of this, we are abide by preparing our younger generation to encounter challenges of globalization while exploring its opportunities in line with rapid digital transformation all over the world that we experience today. The massive impact created by this fast digital transformation in the world is not only has affected renewal of our business and education but also entire life style of people in the world society. For instance, the way we communicate, interact, do business and study. As a result, evidently our teaching and learning practices have been changed enabling our children to cope up with these new demands and also to possess these required new skills and competencies. This transformation in education needs to rethink how, where, when and with whom we learn [7].
In this context, the teachers today have a huge responsibility of preparing our new generation of learners to possess these skills. For that, the teachers should have wider perspectives with deep, reflective and insightful understandings to disseminate GCE in schools. To do so, they should be endowed with theoretical, methodological and practical ideas to implement with their everyday lessons in schools. Thus, GCE is an overwhelming and continuous educational approach in which the educators should support, encourage and inspire the teachers in their endeavor of supporting learners of becoming global citizens [8]. In this critical role the teachers play, which is in fact not limited to improving cognitive skills of students but to have conducive environment for them to become moralistic, ethical, productive and responsible citizens in this globalized world. In this regard, teachers should have strong pedagogical content support and sound knowledge on classroom management with readily available new technological support to be inclusive and sensitive to the diverse needs of the students. However, as key actors of this effort, the prevalent shortcomings such as lack of knowledge, skills and experience bring the teachers lot of pressure. Consequently, empowering teachers' competence to cope up with challenges of GCE should be given high priority of each and every educational agendas of global society [9,10].

Objectives of the Study
This study on reviewing literature on GCE practices and teacher education pursue the following objectives.

METHODOLOGY
This study which is in descriptive nature consists of secondary data in various research journals as well as of some books based on all three kinds of teacher education namely, pre-service, inservice as well as professional development trainings of school teachers in general.

GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION (GCE)
GCE is an educational theory of the common good in which it encourages of acting in society that is community centric, ecologically balanced and culturally sensitive in the ongoing constructions of ecologically balanced and culturally peaceful world [2] (p.4). As they further indicate GCE is a form of intervention of theory and agency of implementation since the world is becoming more and more diverse as well as interdependent while its borders are becoming more and more porous. This trend demands moral obligation, conscious responsiveness and active civic engagement away from individual interests to form a peaceful planet earth. Thus, only excellent educators engage in GCE. Taking a similar view Shultz & Elfert, [11] point out GCE is an imperative and ethical educational approach in the field of learning and teaching process of the present global society in connection with its cultural, linguistic and technological and myriad of environmental issues. Thus, it acknowledges and facilitates for vast diversity of people and their urgent requirements to live on the planet earth.
This socialization concept of GCE with its focus on humanistic and cosmopolitan values encourages common humanity and shared values, overcoming the limitations of prevailed nationalistic citizenship. Thereby, it provides educators necessary perspectives enabling them to help our younger generation to make sense of the world they live in and also to take conscious decisions and act accordingly about the role they have to have [11]. Therefore, in implementing this essential practice teachers and educators should focus on certain approaches. Firstly, with qualification approach, they should focus on knowledge, skills and dispositions, which are essential. Next, with socialization approach they are encouraged to focus on human rights, common humanity and shared values. In order to focus on subjectification approach, it is required to facilitate the critical deconstruction of the dominant discourses that shape our understanding and actions. However, as they further point out, the teachers and educators can merge these perspectives [11] (p.13). Accordingly, GCE is an approach that helps the young people to acquire critical understandings of globalization and aware of global interconnectedness with a view to interact responsibly with others while being self-critical of their actions and perspectives (Pashby, 2011, as cited by [11]).

Conceptual Domains of GCE
There are three conceptual dimensions of GCE that can serve as the basis of defining goals, objectives and competence of GCE with its priorities of assessing and evaluating related learnings [12]. This inter related and learning centered domain is comprised of cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioral focuses.
Cognitive: To acquire knowledge, understanding and critical thinking about global, regional, national and local issues and the interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and populations.

Socio-emotional:
To have a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for differences and diversity.
Behavioral: To act effectively and responsibly at local, national and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world [12] (p.15).
In view if this, Kopish [13] provides extended views of these three domains and suggests to align all three domains with teacher preparation programmes. Subsequently, concerning the knowledge domain; acquiring knowledge, understanding and critical thinking about global, regional, national and local issues and the interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and populations, in connection with socio-emotional domain; having a sense of belonging to a common humanity sharing values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for differences and diversity and in behavioral domain; acting effectively and responsibly at local, national, and global levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world (UNESCO, 2015, cited by [13], p.10-11).The UNESCO's transformative and multifaceted conceptual approach to GCE, concerns the areas of educations in human rights, peace, sustainable development and international understandings. Their core objective of empowering the leaners to engage and assume active role to shape a more peaceful, tolerant and inclusive world with common human rights encourages lifelong learning. As it is further suggested by UNESCO, such education should be delivered through formal, informal, curricular and extra curricula work by taking conventional and non-conventional participative approaches.

THE ELEMENTS OF GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
As Parmenter [14] points out Global Citizenship and Global Citizenship Education have been constructed by involving a range of theoretical and methodological l approaches. However, even if there are vast variety of perspectives and definitions of GCE, when we elaborate them we can see a great endorsement of pro social values, including inter group empathy, valuing diversity, social justice, environmental sustainability, intergroup helping and a responsibility to act for the betterment of the world [15]. When we probe into these perceptions we can realize that the notion of Global Citizenship stands away from its narrow focus with formal, legal and rights based approach to multiple, broader context of global citizenship. It is different from nation state citizenship as it spreads beyond the nation state and needs to fulfill duties and responsibilities with greater commitments. Apparently, global citizenship is a unique set of cross cutting knowledge, skills and competencies that enables an individual to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to challenges and strive the collective good [16].
According to Akkari and Maleq, [5] the concept of Global Citizenship has caused by 3 main reasons, namely; globalization, inability of the traditional citizenship to meet the challenges of multiculturalism and transcends nature of environmental issues and climate change. Consequently, GCE demands a crucial line of action, aimed at addressing the challenges of 21 st century linked with globalization, crisis of traditional conception of citizenship and global environmental issues. Thereby, producing global citizens is a shared responsibility of society and education system. It emphasizes active, participatory, inter disciplinary collaboration and creative actions amongst students, teachers and other educational stake holders towards social justice and sustainability. In this respect, informal education offers some potential for global citizenship projects. Indeed, the flexibility within informal education allows learners to engage with communities on a local and global scale [5] (p.180).
As Farahani [17] emphasizes, since GCE is a process of making global citizens aware, active, critical and sociable citizens, the knowledge, skills and attitude enabling them to be active members of global community. Therefore, the appropriate content of GCE can be designed according to the citizenship education parameters i.e. it should be designed in three dimensions of knowledge and understanding, skills and values so as to make students ready to live in a multicultural society as well as to make them feel that all of us are the member of the same world community that should help one another when it is needed (p.936).
However, considering these different perspectives and emphases Hin Toh and Shaw [18] broadly divide all elements in GCE into two paradigms, as soft and critical paradigms and suggest to have critical empowerment through GCE. With regard to soft paradigm, views globalization as mutually beneficial, while the critical paradigm would view corporate-led globalization, unlimited growth and consumerism as disproportionately benefitting countries in the global North and elites in the global South, leading to a widening gap between and within nations and environmental unsustainability. Further, with respect to global citizenship or global competencies and skills, the critical paradigm would question the goals and outcomes underpinning global competencies and skills [18] (P.17). Nonetheless, their implementation of GCE work commonly adopt following principles.  [18] .These elements of GCE are very much inconformity with the GCE themes of UNESCO Governmental Charity Organization in the UK). In order to thrive as global citizens, by taking transformative approach [9] states knowledge and understanding, skills, and values and attitude as the key elements of GCE.
Even though, UNESCO, [19] points out neither we have a unified and universally agreed definitions on GCE nor we have such principles and core elements of GCE, based on various perspectives and definitions, in the UNESCO's recent report [12] indicates three dimensions of GCE as illustrated by following Fig.   Moreover, as the UNESCO categorizes issues such as human rights, equality, migration, nuclear threat, climate change and which cannot be solved at national level fall as global.
Secondly, based on rights and obligations, effective social engagement that developed through participation and inclusion in order to transform towards a more peaceful and fairer world to the levels of local, regional, national and global as citizenship. Finally, under education they mean encouraging learning process to develop capacities and skills through the development of critical thinking, active participation, volunteering and self especially through non formal and in formal education. Accordingly, the core objective of all these three dimensions GCE is to enable active, well-informed, reflective and responsible participation in global society [12] ( further indicate the following Fig. 2 illustrates the detailed elements of these three dimensions. global citizens, by taking transformative approach [9] states knowledge and ding, skills, and values and attitude as Even though, UNESCO, [19] points out neither we have a unified and universally agreed definitions on GCE nor we have such principles and core elements of GCE, based on various and definitions, in the UNESCO's recent report [12] indicates three dimensions of Fig. 1.
Moreover, as the UNESCO categorizes issues such as human rights, equality, migration, nuclear threat, climate change and digitization which cannot be solved at national level fall as global.
Secondly, based on rights and obligations, effective social engagement that developed through participation and inclusion in order to transform towards a more peaceful and to the levels of local, regional, national and global as citizenship. Finally, under education they mean encouraging learning process to develop capacities and skills through the development of critical thinking, active participation, volunteering and self-learning especially through non formal and in formal education. Accordingly, the core objective of all these three dimensions GCE is to enable active, informed, reflective and responsible 12] (p.4). As they ndicate the following Fig. 2 illustrates the detailed elements of these three In conclusion, despite some contentions in literature on the notion of GCE, there is a reasonable agreement amongst the academics on core elements of GCE [20].

INFLUENCE OF TEACHER EDUCATION (TE) ON IMPLEMENTA-TION OF GCE WORK
With regard to GCE teachers' professionalism is mandatory per se, effective professional development training and continuous learning is critical for them to do their job effectively and also to advance their careers, sense of dedication and performance . This would also serve the students' learning and performance as well [21].
In consequence, in building the capacities of teachers through continuous and effective professional development programmes, can make significant difference in classrooms. Equipping teachers to use GCE pedagogies and delivering GCE curriculum are critical as part of teacher professional development [18]. As they further stated, to have transformative education it is also important to create a culture of professional learning .That is modelled on GCE principles in which it involves peer collaboration, observation, mentoring , active learning and promoting social responsibility, a sense of community and active participation of learners. Professional learning must also build skills in critical thinking while exposing into different cultures and international experiences to increase their knowledge and understanding of local, national and global issues; this form of professional learning can fast track intercultural capability and a sense of global citizenship (p.35). To develop 21 st century competencies in students' the teachers should deliver sophisticated form of teaching. For that, teachers should be ensured to provide continuous professional support linked with their experience, training and evaluation, allowing teachers to grow and develop [11]. Confirming what they suggest, [10] also indicates, transformative education in GCE seeks to impart a range of 21 st century competencies, fostering deeper learning. Thus, delivering content, designing curriculum and text books and project based learning should be done with creative pedagogies and using ICT. In that, GCE should be mandatory part of teacher education programmes.
In contrast, plenty of literature in research reveal, teachers are not adequately prepare to teach nor do they have knowledge to instill GCE skills in their students. Hence, redesigning teacher education programmes is necessary for the teachers to gain contextual knowledge, pedagogies and relevant skills [22,23,24,25].
In regard to teacher education (TE) several research in literature highlight shortcomings of ongoing TE programmes [22,23,24,26,27] century skills with necessary resources, 4. Developing teacher autonomy, 5.Implimenting proper teacher supervision mechanism. These components in TE are a combination of practices in research literature.

Provision of Appropriate Curriculum Content in GCE
To enhance the teachers' global competence, Kopish [13] suggests to develop diverse content in TE programs; for teachers to get deep and critical understanding of knowledge and skills on global issues, ecological system and intercultural awareness. In a recent study extending his views, [24] point out the prevailing curricula of TE programmes are oriented in local than global contexts. Thereby, teacher candidates have limited exposure to global content, courses and experience during teacher preparation (p.48). As Yousof et al. [25] point out, themes such as, human rights and humanitarian development, gender equality, peace and social cohesion, migration and refugee issues, moral education, climate change, sustainable development and also wellness and health should be embedded in TE programs in order to foster values of each and every individual.
Furthermore, Moul [29] emphasized in the face of increasing conflicts and refugee crisis, it is imperative to ensure peace building and creating social cohesion and training the teachers to be ambassadors of peace education and social cohesion efforts which are very valuable dimensions of GCE.

Developing Related Policy Decisions on GCE
In consideration of marginal place given to the GCE, in contrast with its crucial requirements, coupled with challenges faced by the teachers in implementing GCE practice, it is necessary to assist them by taking necessary policy decisions for better maintain GCE in schools [26] (p.52). Further, for being able to develop effective teacher trainings for both pre and in-service teachers it is essential for policy-makers and practitioners looking to design new programmes around the world [30]. Subsequently, in regard to GCE, priority should be given to teacher education at national level through a concrete plan of action with necessary and precise guidelines to all stake holders of education venture. Precedently, doing a needs analysis survey on teachers' as well as teacher educators' would be a crucial requirement to reach to expected goals. Moreover, to make the whole process effective, allocation of necessary resources and funds also should be considered. Further, to ensure sustainable outcomes, monitoring mechanism should be strengthened particularly with teachers' work without hindering their autonomy by any means.

Provision of 21 st Century Skills with Necessary Resources
To deliver components of GCE, quality teachers should have personal knowledge, contextual knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, sociological knowledge and social knowledge (Goodwin, 2010) as cited by [31]. Alignment of 21 st century skills such as critical thinking, intercultural capability, decision making, leadership skills and digital competence are also necessary in teacher education programmes [32,24].
Many researchers highlight value of using technology as a main pedagogical tool of TE programs in GCE [24,32,33,34,35,36]. As UNESCO [36] indicates, it is essential and also immensely helpful to reach the objectives of transformative learning in GCE and in turn, it makes the teachers professionals with much needed 21 st century skills. For instance, Camilleri, [33] stressed the value of E-Twining programs (collaboration through technology), in order to support the teachers to have global awareness and global competence, receiving high-tech digital skills and collaborate across the cultures are necessary for both the teachers as well as their students. In sum, preparation of teachers should be equated with the demands and needs of global society [24].

Developing Teacher Autonomy
Empowering teachers for high level of teacher autonomy is important to adapt national curriculum relevant to local contexts. In turn, this will help engage and enthuse students [18].

Implementing Proper Teacher Supervision (Monitoring and Assessment) Mechanism
The purpose of supervision (Monitoring and Assessment) process is to provide feedback to

Fig. 2. Global citizenship education and teacher education model
improve learning and teaching which is, critical to improve quality of education and effective learning and teaching. Traditional form of assessment, testing and examination can be useful in GCE but should be used with other forms of assessments including, performance based reflective, qualitative and formative forms than traditional testing (UNESCO, 2015) as cited in [18] (p.21).
Thus, as they further illustrate, with supervision process of GCE, in contrast to measureable outcomes of quantitative assessments, it is better to opt for formative assessments in which it demonstrates holistic framework. This can be done through methods including, peer classroom observation, sharing lesson plans, learner feedback and self-assessment. Pre-service and in-service professional development for educators should ensure that they have the skills required to monitor and assess the pedagogies and curriculum approaches used in GCE (p.22).

GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP PRACTICES AND TEACHER EDUCATION MODEL
In the context of GCE practices, the biggest portion of responsibility falls on teachers, as they are the key of success in whole process. However, considering the complexity of this multi-dimensional approach, which mainly pursues transformative pedagogy, has no unified and prescribed way of educating teachers.
Anyway, beyond any doubt, it is obvious that teachers of GCE should be professionals of this business as their role is not limited to knowledge transmitter but to multiple roles such as teaching -learning leader, life leader, class manager and change facilitator (Oh, 2006 as cited by [22].
Even so, many research studies in literature recognize lack of teacher capacity as one of the main barriers to GCE. As key actors, in ensuring quality education particularly, with GCE, through policy framework, they are required to gain indepth knowledge, pedagogical skills and quality supervision with practices of GCE ideals, facilitated by adequate resources and communication technology.
TE has been a key focus in GCE and it has been supported to re-orient and upgrade the quality of TE programmes around the world with changes, practices, policy as well as awareness, knowledge, skills, values and acceptance of the sustainability paradigm' (McKeown, 2014) as cited by [35]. As they further state, quality of teacher education around the world has a direct impact of the promotion and inclusion GCE. In terms of TE in GCE, many researchers [24,26,29,35,10] stress the need of provision of appropriate curriculum content in GCE, developing related policy decisions, provision of 21 st Century skills with necessary resources and developing teacher autonomy supported by effective teacher supervision mechanism.
Teacher education has been a decisive factor in ensuring GCE, in that, with regard to GCE teachers are expected be professionals with 21 st century skills. Thus, providing them due TE should be a continuum throughout their career supported by quality supervision process. Even if, this paper tried to explore the aspects of TE and GCE, based on various research work, a wide space is yet to be explored in both these fields. Continuing on this line, the elements such as provision of curriculum content, 21 st century skills with necessary resources, developing related policy decisions, ensuring teacher autonomy and effective supervision etc. should have to be considered by educational policy planners and teacher educators when planning and implementing their work, to assure GCE skills in teachers.

CONCLUSION
Teachers as agents of social change, to instil intended goals of GCE in their students', first they themselves should possess the knowledge and practice the 21 st century skills. In that, teacher education has become a decisive factor in the context of education at all levels, to better serve students.